Controlled synthesis and transfer of large area heterostructures made of bilayer and multilayer transition metal dichalocogenides

ABSTRACT

Embodiments are presented herein that provide a TMD system wherein the first layered material is made of heterobilayers or multilayers with semiconducting direct band gaps. The first layered material may be made of multiple layers of different TMD with different stackings, exhibiting smaller direct and indirect band gaps smaller than monolayer systems of TMD.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/805,461, filed on Mar. 26, 2013. That application is incorporated by reference herein.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This work is supported by the U.S. Army Research Office MURI grant W911NF-11-1-0362. The government may have rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

Embodiments of the invention relate to bilayer and multilayer transition metal dichalcogenides systems and methods of making same.

Description of the Related Art

Bulk phases of trigonal prismatic transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) can be semiconducting, metallic, or superconducting, depending on the atomic composition. Recently, it has been found that a monolayer of semiconducting MoS2, obtained by exfoliation, exhibits a direct band gap instead of having an indirect band gap as in the bulk. The same behavior has also been found for monolayers of MX2 where M is W or Mo, and X is S or Se. Moreover, the bilayers of TMD possess an indirect band gap as the bulk. The importance of having direct band gap is that the material can have optical properties such as photoluminescence at different wave length ranges and that it also exhibits valley polarization effects.

Bulk hexagonal phases of layered semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (STMD) such as MoS₂, WS₂, WSe₂, and MoSe₂ exhibit indirect band gaps, and a mono-layer of STMD possesses a direct band gap which could be used in the construction of optoelectronic devices, catalysts, sensors, and valleytronic components. Thus far, direct band gap has only been known to occur in mono-layered STMDs. Even bilayered STMDs exhibit indirect band gaps.

TMDs form bulk layered materials in which the layers interact via van der Waals forces, similar to graphene and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). This is why TMDs are good solid lubricants, including inorganic Fullerenes and nanotubes of MoS₂ and WS₂. See Fleischauer, P. D. Fundamental-Aspects of the Electronic-Structure, Materials Properties and Lubrication Performance of Sputtered MoS₂ Films. Thin Solid Films 154, 309-322, (1987); Martin, J. M., Donnet, C., Lemogne, T. & Epicier, T. Superlubricity of Molybdenum-Disulfide. Phys. Rev. B 48, 10583-10586, (1993); and Rapoport, L., Fleischer, N. & Tenne, R. Applications of WS₂ (MoS₂) inorganic nanotubes and fullerene-like nanoparticles for solid lubrication and for structural nanocomposites. J Mater. Chem. 15, 1782-1788, (2005).

Recently, the electronic properties of few-layered MoS₂, WS₂ and WSe₂ have been measured. See Hwang, W. S. et al. Transistors with chemically synthesized layered semiconductor WS₂ exhibiting 10⁵ room temperature modulation and ambipolar behavior. Applied Physics Letters 101, (2012); Wang, H. et al. Integrated Circuits Based on Bilayer MoS₂ Transistors. Nano Letters 12, 4674-4680, (2012); Zhang, Y. J., Ye, J. T., Matsuhashi, Y. & Iwasa, Y. Ambipolar MoS₂ Thin Flake Transistors. Nano Letters 12, 1136-1140, (2012); and Fang, H. et al. High-Performance Single Layered WSe2 p-FETs with Chemically Doped Contacts. Nano Letters 12, 3788-3792, (2012).

It is important to note that monolayers of TMD are not single-atom thick, as in graphene or h-BN, but instead they are formed by layers in which the transition metal atom (W or Mo) is sandwiched between sulfur or selenium atoms (see FIGS. 1A-1D). The TMD phases possess two types of atomic arrangements: the trigonal prismatic and the octahedral, Wieting, T. K., Schluter. in Physics and Chemistry of Materials with Layered Structures (ed E. Mooser) (D. Reidel, Boston, 1979), and they could either exhibit semiconducting (e.g. MoS₂, WS₂, WSe₂ and MoSe₂) or metallic-superconducting behavior (e.g. NbS₂ and NbSe₂). See Wang, Q. A., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., Kis, A., Coleman, J. N., Strano, M. S. Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides. Nature Nanotechnology 7, 699-712, (2012); Kam, K. K. & Parkinson, B. A. Detailed Photocurrent Spectroscopy of The Semiconducting Group-VI Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides. Journal of Physical Chemistry 86, 463-467, (1982); Beal, A. R., Hughes, H. P. & Liang, W. Y. Reflectivity Spectra of Some VA Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides. Journal of Physics C-Solid State Physics 8, 4236-4248, (1975); Traving, M. et al. Electronic structure of WSe₂: A combined photoemission and inverse photoemission study. Phys. Rev. B 55, 10392-10399, (1997); and Finteis, T. et al. Occupied and unoccupied electronic band structure of WSe₂ . Phys. Rev. B 55, 10400-10411, (1997).

Normally, the bulk hexagonal phases (trigonal prismatic) of semiconducting TMD (STMD) reveal an indirect band gap from the Γ point to an intermediate point in the Brillouin zone (Γ-I) (see FIG. 2A for the case of WS₂) the result has been also confirmed by first principles calculations. See Mattheis. Lf. Energy-Bands For 2H—NbSe₂ AND 2H-MoS₂ . Physical Review Letters 30, 784-787, (1973); Boker, T. et al. Band structure of MoS₂, MoSe₂, and alpha-MoTe₂: Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations. Phys. Rev. B 64, (2001); Jiang, H. Electronic Band Structures of Molybdenum and Tungsten Dichalcogenides by the GW Approach. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 116, 7664-7671, (2012); Cheiwchanchamnangij, T. & Lambrecht, W. R. L. Quasiparticle band structure calculation of monolayer, bilayer, and bulk MoS₂ . Phys. Rev. B 85, (2012); and Enyashin, A., Gemming, S. & Seifert, G. Nanosized allotropes of molybdenum disulfide. European Physical Journal-Special Topics 149, 103-125, (2007). Heinz and co-workers have found that mono-layers of MoS₂ strongly emit light due to a 1.8 eV direct band gap at the K point in the Brillouin zone. See Mak, K. F., Lee, C., Hone, J., Shan, J. & Heinz, T. F. Atomically Thin MoS₂: A New Direct-Gap Semiconductor. Physical Review Letters 105, (2010).

This direct gap has also been confirmed experimentally by other groups through photoluminescence in exfoliated MoS₂, Splendiani, A. et al. Emerging Photoluminescence in Monolayer MoS₂ . Nano Letters 10, 1271-1275, (2010), Korn, T., Heydrich, S., Hirmer, M., Schmutzler, J. & Schuller, C. Low-temperature photocarrier dynamics in monolayer MoS₂ . Applied Physics Letters 99, (2011), and Eda, G. et al. Photoluminescence from Chemically Exfoliated MoS₂ . Nano Letters 11, 5111-5116, (2011), and chemical vapor deposition islands of monolayer WS₂ (see FIG. 2B).

So far, it has been not been reported theoretically or experimentally that it is possible to generate a direct band gap in bilayer and multilayer systems if the layers and the stackings are different in chemical composition.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments are presented herein that provide bilayer or multilayer TMD systems and methods of making same that have direct band gap in the bilayer and multilayer systems. The arrangement of layers of different TMDs of the type MX₂ where M=Mo, W, Nb, and X=S, Se, and Te, form bilayer or multiple layers with different stackings. The materials used exhibit different semiconducting band gaps and metallic behaviors depending on the composition. The gaps can be direct in the bilayer and multilayer systems, and can range from 0.8 eV to 1.16 eV.

In one embodiment, the metallic systems which involve one layer of NbX₂, wherein X is S or Se, can be used as contacts for completely new self-contained 2-D electronic devices.

In another embodiment, the synthesis of these new systems involves the chemical sulfurization or selenization of the transition metal oxide at different stages.

In yet another embodiment, a synthesis method of large area monolayers and multilayer systems based on different stackings and different TMDs is described as a modified chemical vapor deposition procedure which includes the mixture of different atomic species. The results indicate that it is possible to scale up the procedure with different chemicals to fabricate different layers of TMD.

In another embodiment, using first principles calculations, by alternating individual layers of different STMD (MoS₂, WS₂, WSe₂, and MoSe₂) with particular stackings, it is possible to generate direct band gap bi-layers ranging from 0.79 eV to 1.157 eV. In this direct band gap, electrons and holes are physically separated and localized in different layers.

The alternation of different STMD will result in the fabrication of new materials with unprecedented optical and physic-chemical properties.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1D shows atomic models representing the bilayer heterostructures of semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (STMD). FIG. 1A shows bilayers formed by overlapping WSe₂ on WS₂ with stacking type B (bulk) denoted as Bilayer (WS₂,WSe₂,B); FIG. 1B shows bilayers formed by placing WSe₂ on MoS₂ with stacking type A denoted as Bilayer (MoS₂,WSe₂,A); FIG. 1C shows stacking type B in which the transition metal atoms are on top of the chalcogen atoms. This is the stacking found in bulk STMD. FIG. 1D shows stacking type A in which the chalcogen atoms are on top of each other. The dotted lines indicate the alignment of atoms between layers, and the arrows correspond to the distance dS-Se between chalcogen atoms of different layers.

FIG. 2A shows band structure of bulk hexagonal WS₂ (the arrow shows the indirect gap Γ-I); FIG. 2B shows band structure of a monolayer of WS₂ (note the arrow revealing the direct band gap location); FIG. 2C shows type 1 family of WS₂—MoS₂ showing the band structure of the bilayer with an A stacking; FIG. 2D shows type 2 family band structure showing the direct band gap of bilayer (WS₂,WSe₂,B); FIG. 2E shows type 2 family band structure of the direct band gap corresponding to the bilayer (WSe₂,MoS₂,A), and FIG. 2F shows the Type 2 family, band structure of the infinite number of layers case: Crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,A). The horizontal line at zero indicates the top of the valence band.

FIGS. 3A-3C show bilayer (WSe2, WS2,B). FIG. 3A shows band structure. FIG. 3B shows PDOS considering the d-electrons of tungsten; FIG. 3C shows PDOS considering the p-electrons of the chalcogen atoms Se or S at different layers.

FIGS. 4A-4F show a bilayer composition with the structure (WSe₂,WS₂,A): FIG. 4A shows band structure showing the direct band gap; FIG. 4B shows PDOS showing the d-electrons of W at each of the layers. The arrows indicate the states at the top of the valence band caused by W in the WSe₂ layer, and the states at bottom of the conduction band due to W in the WS₂ layer; FIG. 4C shows PDOS showing the p-electrons of the chalcogen atoms. The arrows exhibits the states at the top of the valence band of Se in the WSe₂ layer, and reveal the states at the bottom of the conduction band of the S atoms in the WS₂ layer; FIG. 4D shows DFT-LDA calculated phonon dispersion for the WS₂ monolayer is in dotted lines, and the bilayer (WS2,WSe2,B). The phonon density of states is shown (right hand side), and FIG. 4E shows DFT-LDA Raman intensities due to the different phonon modes in the bilayer (WS2-WSe2,B) using a laser wave length of 514.5 cm⁻¹ at 300 K.

FIG. 5A shows a schematic representation of the experimental setup used for the synthesis of TMD films involving high temperature treatments under a Sulfur/Argon environment at low pressures (450 mTorr), and FIG. 5B shows the temperature ramp used for sulfurization experiments.

FIG. 6A shows a schematic representation of the developed polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)-assisted transfer method onto different substrates, FIG. 6B shows a photograph of the WS₂ film floating on hydrofluoric acid (HF). FIG. 6C shows a photograph of a WS₂ film on a SiO₂/Si substrate, exhibiting the high contrast and color change (films are cyan color).

FIG. 7 shows the Raman spectrum of a hybrid W_(x)Mo_(y)S₂ layer grown directly on Si/SiO₂ at atmospheric pressure. The spectrum was acquired with a 514 nm laser excitation wavelength.

FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B show Raman characterization of monolayer WS₂ films with different excitation wavelengths: FIG. 8A shows 514.5 nm and FIG. 8B shows 488 nm. The laser line excitation corresponds to 514.5 nm.

FIGS. 9A-9D show high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images of WS₂ films. Insets show the Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the corresponding TEM micrograph. FIG. 9A shows WS₂ region with at least two different thicknesses, according to the FFT. FIG. 9B and FIG. 9C, respectively, exhibit a bilayer and trilayer WS₂ with different stacking, revealed by the formed Moire pattern and confirmed by the FFT, and FIG. 9D depicts the edge of a single layer WS₂ film.

FIG. 10A shows photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of a single layered WS₂ film, showing a well formed peak at around 2 eV and a shoulder around 2.16 eV. FIG. 10B shows energy band gap of single layered WS₂ vs. expansion of the lattice. FIG. 10C shows band structure of single layer WS₂. FIG. 10D shows band structure of bulk WS₂.

FIG. 11A shows monochromatic optical image of the overlapped triangles. FIG. 11B shows AFM topography micrograph. FIG. 11C shows a fluorescence image. FIG. 11D shows a PL spectrum of the triangle labeled T1. FIG. 11E shows PL spectrum of the triangle labeled T2, and FIG. 11F shows PL spectrum of the overlapped region with increase intensity. All spectra were acquired with 488 nm laser excitation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

We have found that direct band gaps may be obtained by sandwiching different metal disulfides and diselenides.

We have demonstrated, for the first time, that it is possible to obtain novel direct band gap bilayers of STMD if different monolayers are overlapped. Moreover, in some cases it is possible to have direct band gap crystals with an infinite number of layers if the stacking belongs to A type. The direct band gap bilayers exhibit a physical separation of electron and holes probably due to a sort of local Giant Stark Effect caused by charge differences established between the heterogeneous layers. In these systems, the top of the valence band is dominated by the selenide layer and the bottom of the conduction band is controlled by the states of the sulfide layer. Homogeneous bilayers of TMD do not possess this net charge separation and hence do not exhibit direct band gaps. In addition, this is a different behavior from that found for monolayers of STMD, in which electrons and holes are restricted to interact within the layer.

In particular, the family of WS₂—WSe₂ and MoS₂—WSe₂ bilayers behave like a direct band gap material for the two stackings (A and B; being B the most stable). These 2D layered systems can be synthesized by sandwiching exfoliated monolayers or chemical vapor deposition layers, using a careful transfer of the monolayers. Moreover, this family could also produce a direct band gap crystal with A stacking. In addition, the family of hybrids WS₂—MoSe₂ and MoS₂—MoSe₂, besides having a direct band gap for A stackings, exhibit an indirect gap at Γ-K for a bilayer with stacking type B, a result which has not been reported hitherto for STMD. Another relevant feature is that the distance between layers increases for type A stackings, found to be the least favorable energetically speaking (see Table 2 supplementary information).

TABLE 2 Bilayer Bilayer Crystal Crystal stacking stacking stacking stacking Hybrid-Structure A B A B WS₂-MoS₂ Type 1 0.1882 0.1138 0.1471 0 WS₂-WSe₂ Type 2 0.1922 0.1164 0.1494 0 MoS₂-WSe₂ Type 2 0.2061 0.1245 0.1613 0 WS₂-MoSe₂ Type 3 0.1948 0.1180 0.1517 0 MoS₂-MoSe₂ Type 3 0.2098 0.1264 0.1645 0 WSe₂-MoSe₂ Type 4 0.2088 0.1262 0.1632 0

Relative energies in eV of hybrid STMD with respect to their corresponding crystal phase.

However, by twisting the layers or by changing the stacking, new cases with more favorable energetics were found. It is important to mention that the direct band gaps of the hybrid systems range from 0.79 eV (1569.42 nm) to 1.15 eV (1078.12 nm), which are much smaller than the direct band gaps, already found experimentally in monolayers of WS₂ (2.1 eV) and MoS₂ (1.8 eV). See Wang, Q. A., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., Kis, A., Coleman, J. N., Strano, M. S. Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides. Nature Nanotechnology 7, 699-712, (2012).

The novel hybrid bilayer systems exhibit new optical properties useful for applications in the infrared range. With the hybrid layer technology at hand, it is possible to experimentally produce bilayer hybrid systems with novel photoluminescence properties. Note that in these bilayer systems there is no inversion symmetry, so they might play an important role in valley polarization and valleytronics.

For this case, the direct band gap is around 1.9 eV, Gutierrez, H. R., Perea-Lopez, N., Elias, A. L., Berkdemyr, A., Wang, B., LV, R., Lopez-Urias, F., Crespi, V. H., Terrones, H., Terrones, M. Extraordinary Room-Temperature Photoluminescence in Triangular WS₂ Monolayers. Nano Letters DOI 10.1021/nl3026357, (2012). See FIG. 2B. Besides the transformation to a direct band gap for a monolayer of STMD, a break of inversion symmetry also occurs, Xiao, D., Liu, G. B., Feng, W. X., Xu, X. D. & Yao, W. Coupled Spin and Valley Physics in Monolayers of MoS₂ and Other Group-VI Dichalcogenides. Physical Review Letters 108, (2012), which has been confirmed experimentally by circularly polarized light experiments that lead to valley polarization effects. See Zeng, H. L., Dai, J. F., Yao, W., Xiao, D. & Cui, X. D. Valley polarization in MoS₂ monolayers by optical pumping. Nature Nanotechnology 7, 490-493, (2012); and Mak, K. F., He, K. L., Shan, J. & Heinz, T. F. Control of valley polarization in monolayer MoS₂ by optical helicity. Nature Nanotechnology 7, 494-498, (2012).

To date, various groups have performed first principles calculations using Local density approximation (LDA), Generalized gradient approximation-Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (GGA-PBE), Hybrid-DFT Heyd-Scuseria-Ernzerhof (HSE), many body perturbation theory under the GW approximation (including excitonic and spin orbit coupling effects), in order to obtain the band structure with more precision and explain the experimental reported observations. See Boker, T. et al. Band structure of MoS₂, MoSe₂, and alpha-MoTe₂: Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations. Phys. Rev. B 64, (2001); Jiang, H. Electronic Band Structures of Molybdenum and Tungsten Dichalcogenides by the GW Approach. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 116, 7664-7671, (2012); Cheiwchanchamnangij, T. & Lambrecht, W. R. L. Quasiparticle band structure calculation of monolayer, bilayer, and bulk MoS₂ . Phys. Rev. B 85, (2012); Lebegue, S., Pillet, S. & Angyan, J. G. Modeling spin-crossover compounds by periodic DFT+U approach. Phys. Rev. B 78, (2008); Ramasubramaniam, A. Large excitonic effects in monolayers of molybdenum and tungsten dichalcogenides. Phys. Rev. B 86, (2012); Li, T. S. & Galli, G. L. Electronic properties of MoS₂ nanoparticles. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 111, 16192-16196, (2007); Kuc, A., Zibouche, N. & Heine, T. Influence of quantum confinement on the electronic structure of the transition metal sulfide TS₂ . Phys. Rev. B 83, (2011); Ramasubramaniam, A., Naveh, D. & Towe, E. Tunable band gaps in bilayer transition-metal dichalcogenides. Phys. Rev. B 84, (2011); Ding, Y. et al. First principles study of structural, vibrational and electronic properties of graphene-like MX2 (M=Mo, Nb, W, Ta; X=S, Se, Te) monolayers. Physica B-Condensed Matter 406, 2254-2260, (2011). Although there are differences in the band gaps due to the particular theoretical approach used, all these calculations agree in the main features of the band structure and in the existence of direct band gaps for monolayers of STMD and indirect gaps in bilayers and multilayer systems.

When a second layer of the same dichalcogenide is added to the monolayer, the indirect band gap from the Γ point to an intermediate state (Γ-I) becomes significant, Cheiwchanchamnangij, T. & Lambrecht, W. R. L. Quasiparticle band structure calculation of monolayer, bilayer, and bulk MoS₂ . Phys. Rev. B 85, (2012), and the system loses the direct band gap character. Therefore, the direct band gap at the K point is restricted to monolayers of STMD.

To understand further this issue, we have also performed first principles calculations on different stackings and rotations of one layer with respect to another in the bilayer systems of the same dichalcogenide, and found the absence of a direct band gap even for twisted bilayers. However, when considering the stacking of different bilayers of STMD (e.g. WS₂—MoS₂, WSe₂—MoS₂ MoSe₂—MoS₂, WSe₂—MoSe₂, etc.), the direct band gap at the K point becomes dominant, similar to monolayers. Moreover, in some of these geometries the alternated layers can result in an infinite hybrid crystal with a direct band gap. According to the band structure analysis, the main features are the presence of a direct band gap at the K point, as well as the presence of particular indirect gaps. In this context, four families of hybrid STMD have been identified: WS₂—MoS₂ as type 1, WSe₂—WS₂ and WSe₂—MoS₂ as type 2, MoSe₂—WS₂ and MoSe₂—MoS₂ as type 3 and WSe₂—MoSe₂ as type 4 (see FIG. 1).

Embodiments also relate to cumulative buildup of photoluminescence intensity in artificially stacked TMD monolayers. Monolayers of TMDs emit light efficiently at different temperatures, due to the transformation of the electronic structure of the material when a single layer is isolated. We have found that following our synthesis and transfer method as reported herein, the photoluminescence (PL) signal of stacked monolayers (very weakly interacting) can be multiplied as the numbers of layers increase. In some embodiments it is multiplied at least 10 times, at least 20 times, at least 30 times, at least 40 times, at least 50, or at least 60 times. Under standard conditions the layers interact by van der Waals forces, in such case the amount of light emitted by bi- and/or multi-layers is orders of magnitude smaller than that of one monolayer.

In our system, the light emission can build up due to the very weak layer interaction between monolayers stacked one on top of another. FIG. 11A shows the optical image of two overlapped triangular monolayers of WS₂ that were transferred chemically on top of a monolayer another WS₂ monolayer. FIG. 11B corresponds to the Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) image showing the overlapped region (two monolayers) exhibits a thickness close to 1.8 nm that corresponds to weak a layer interaction (a tight layer interaction corresponds to >0.662 nm). FIG. 11C depicts the fluorescence image obtained when shining green light (wavelength of 530 nm). The light emission was collected using a high-pass red filter (Cutoff ˜600 nm). This image shows the overlap region with stronger fluorescence than that observed for individual triangular monolayers. Spectroscopic evidence of this behavior is presented in FIGS. 11D-11F. In particular, FIGS. 11D and 11E reveal the PL spectra of each isolated monolayer. Finally the spectrum shown in FIG. 1F presents the accumulated PL emission from two weakly interacting stacked layers. The behavior observed here, is the proof of concept that TMDs could be used as efficient light emitting sources when monolayers stack on one another with relatively weak interactions and spacing >0.62 nm. We estimated that in a film fabricated by weakly stacking different monolayers, it is possible to integrate 50 monolayers in 100 nm, this will render a light generation 50 times stronger than the monolayer.

Methods

Calculations were performed using the plane wave code CASTEP, Clark, S. J. et al. First principles methods using CASTEP, Zeitschrift Fur Kristallographie 220, 567-570, (2005), as implemented in the Materials Studio, on hexagonal cells under the Local Density Approximation (LDA) considering the Ceperly-Alder-Perdew and Zunger (CA-PZ), Ceperley, D. M. & Alder, B. J. Ground-State of The Electron-Gas by a Stochastic Method. Physical Review Letters 45, 566-569, (1980); and Perdew, J. P. & Zunger, A. Self-Interaction Correction to Density-Functional Approximations for Many-Electron Systems. Phys. Rev. B 23, 5048-5079, (1981), functional with 13×13×3 Monkhorst-Pack K-points and a plane waves cut off of 500 eV. All the structures were relaxed, including the cells, until the forces became smaller to 0.01 eV/Å and the energy tolerances were less to 5×10⁻⁶ eV/atom. A vacuum of 16 Å between the bilayers was considered. In order to select the optimum approach for interlayer distances, van der Waals interactions were considered through a dispersion correction (DFT-D), Ortmann, F., Bechstedt, F. & Schmidt, W. G. Semiempirical van der Waals correction to the density functional description of solids and molecular structures. Phys. Rev. B 73, (2006), under both, LDA and General Gradient Approximation (GGA-PW91). See Perdew, J. P. et al. Atoms, Molecules, Solids, And Surfaces-Applications of the Generalized Gradient Approximation for the Exchange and Correlation. Phys. Rev. B 46, 6671-6687, (1992). To test the results, several TMD structures were calculated such as WS₂, MoS₂, WSe₂, MoSe₂, NbSe₂, NbS₂ and compared with the experimental data available (see Table 5).

TABLE 5 Direct Relative Indirect Gap Lattice “a” Energy/cell Structure Gap (eV) (eV) ΔGap (eV) (Å) (eV) Bilayer(WS₂, A) 1.762 1.922   0.160 3.145 0.1797 Bilayer(WS₂, B) 1.357 1.890   0.533 3.146 0.1089 Crystal(WS2, A) 1.755(K-I) 1.984   0.229(K-I) 3.146 0.1402 2.318( 

 -I) −0.333( 

 -I) Crystal(WS₂, B) 0.883 1.829   0.946 a = 3.147 0  (3.155 exp³³) c = 12.166  (12.35 exp³³) Single-Layer WS₂ 2.209 1.940 −0.268 3.146 0.2198 Bilayer(MoS₂, A) 1.589 1.801   0.213 3.167 0.1975 Bilayer(MoS₂, B) 1.112 1.773   0.662 3.168 0.1190 Crystal(MoS2, A) 1.642(K-I) 1.847   0.205(K-I) 3.168 0.1556 2.131( 

 -I) −0.285( 

 -I) Crystal(MoS₂, B) 0.706 1.714   1.008 a = 3.170 0  (3.160 exp³³) c = 12.106  (12.29 exp³³) Single-Layer MoS₂ 2.031 1.823 −0.207 3.167 0.2398 Bilayer(MoSe₂, A) 1.432(K-I) 1.579   0.147(K-I) 3.286 0.2163 1.548( 

 -l)   0.031( 

 -I) Bilayer(MoSe₂, B) 1.047( 

 -l) 1.550   0.5039 3.287 0.1302 Crystal(MoSe₂, A) 1.347(K-I) 1.629   0.282(K-I) 3.286 0.1704 2.036( 

 -l) −0.407( 

 -I) Crystal(MoSe₂, B) 0.686( 

 -l) 1.483   0.797 a = 3.290 0  (3.288 exp³³) c = 12.779 (12.931 exp³³) MoSe₂-Single- 1.973 1.606 −0.367 3.285 0.2628 Layer

STMD properties as calculated with LDA in this application: Showing the indirect band gap, the direct band gap, the difference between direct and indirect gap, lattice parameters and relative energies per cell.

The lattice constant experimental values exhibit good agreement with the LDA approach (without considering the dispersion correction DFT-D). For the LDA-DFT-D, the layers get closer to each other producing a compactification of the “c” lattice parameter (around 3.6% smaller than bulk), whereas with the GGA-DFT-D approach, the layers get farther apart thus producing a lattice with a much larger “c” parameter (around 3.5% bigger than bulk). The lattice “c” parameters obtained with LDA produce the best fit within 1.5% or less of those reported experimentally. Moreover, our results are in agreement with those reported by other groups within the LDA formalism. See Ding, Y. et al. First principles study of structural, vibrational and electronic properties of graphene-like MX2 (M=Mo, Nb, W, Ta; X=S, Se, Te) monolayers. Physica B-Condensed Matter 406, 2254-2260, (2011); and Mahatha, S. K., Patel, K. D. & Menon, K. S. R. Electronic structure investigation of MoS2 and MoSe2 using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and ab initio band structure studies. Journal of Physics-Condensed Matter 24, (2012).

Although DFT first principles calculations underestimate the band gaps, DFT-LDA provides a good approximation for the direct band gaps in STMD systems. Therefore, LDA was used for all the calculations. The phonon density of states and the phonon dispersion were calculated with the above parameters, but extending the plane wave cut off to 720 eV using the density functional perturbation theory as implemented in the CASTEP code which uses the linear response methodology that works well for insulators. See Refson, K., Tulip, P. R. & Clark, S. J. Variational density-functional perturbation theory for dielectrics and lattice dynamics. Phys. Rev. B 73, (2006).

Results

Family of Hybrids WS₂—MoS₂ (Type 1)

For all the performed first principles calculations, two types of stackings were selected to overlap the monolayers of STMD: First, was the crystal stacking found in the bulk phases; the letter B (bulk) is used to indicate this type of stacking. In particular, for stacking type B, the S (Se) atoms of one layer sit on top of the metal atoms of the other layer (see FIGS. 1A and 1C). The second stacking contemplated in our study, consists of S (Se) atoms arranged on top of the S (Se) atoms of the adjacent layer (see FIG. 1B and FIG. 1D); this is referred to as A stacking.

For the hybrid layers of MoS₂ and WS₂ arranged in a bilayer with a stacking type B, we introduced the notation: bilayer (MoS₂,WS₂,B); in which the first two symbols within the brackets refer to the STMD considered and the next symbol indicates the stacking type (A or B). We have also considered infinite crystal cases (infinite number of layers) with stackings type A and B as crystal (MoS₂,WS₂,A) and crystal (MoS₂,WS₂,B), respectively. For all the cases of this family (hybrids MoS₂—WS₂), there was an absence of a dominant direct band gap. The gap difference between the direct gap at K and indirect gap Γ-I for the A stackings is reduced when compared to the corresponding difference in stackings of type B (see table 1 and FIG. 2C). Table 1 shows direct and indirect (in parenthesis) band gaps in eV of hybrids of semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (STMD). Systems with a dominant direct band gap at the K point in the Brillouin zone have an asterisk. Cases with “+” show an indirect fundamental band gap Γ-K, and “&” corresponds to a dominant indirect gap K-I.

TABLE 1 Hybrid- Structure Bilayer stacking A Bilayer stacking B Crystal stacking A Crystal stacking B WS₂-MoS₂ 1.695 (1.586  

 -I) 1.708 (1.190  

 -I) 1.669 (1.284  

 -I) 1.664 (0.764  

 -I) Type 1 WS₂-WSe₂ 1.007 (1.725  

 -I)* 1.068 (1.314  

 -I)* 1.007 (1.406  

 -I)* 1.037 (0.883  

 -I) Type 2 MoS₂ -WSe₂ 0.790 (1.525  

 -I)* 0.891 (1.147  

 -I)* 0.802 (1.245  

 -I)* 0.883 (0.736  

 -I) Type 2 WS₂-MoSe₂ 1.154 (1.594  

 -I)* 1.180 (1.052  

 -K)⁺ 1.157 (1.316  

 -I)* 1.155 (0.790  

 -I) Type 3 MoS₂ -MoSe₂ 0.945 (1.560  

 -I)* 1.013 (0.899  

 -K)⁺ 0.949 (1.260  

 -I)* 0.998 (0.699  

 -I) Type 3 WSe₂-MoSe₂ 1.443 (1.330 K-I)^(&) 1.471 (1.116  

 -I) 1.444 (1.215 K-I)^(&) 1.418 (0.761  

 -I) Type 4

This gap reduction is due to an increase in the indirect gap at Γ-I for the stacking A cases. The direct gap at the K point changes very little in these systems, from 1.664 eV for crystal (MoS₂,WS₂,B) to 1.708 eV for bilayer (MoS₂,WS₂,B), whereas the indirect gap Γ-I changes more dramatically from 0.764 eV in the crystal (MoS₂,WS₂,B) to 1.586 eV for the bilayer (MoS₂,WS₂,A). Regarding stability, the total energy/cell (one cell contains one unit of WS₂ and one unit of MoS₂) always favors the stackings type B with a difference of 0.1138 eV/cell for the crystals and 0.0744 eV/cell for the bilayers (see Table 2). The lattice parameters “a” for this family varies very little from 3.155 Å for the bilayer (MoS₂,WS₂,A) to 3.158 Å for the crystal (MoS₂,WS₂,B), thus lying between the lattice constants of WS₂ and MoS₂ crystals. See Wildervanck, J. C. & Jellinek, F. Preparation and crystallinity of molybdenum and tungsten sulfides. Zeitschrift Fur Anorganische Und Allgemeine Chemie 328, 309-318, (1964). See table 3 The bond lengths (Mo—S and W—S) are basically the same as in the corresponding monolayer (see Table 4).

TABLE 4 Bilayer Bilayer Crystal Crystal Hybrid-Structure stacking A stacking B stacking A stacking B WS₂-MoS₂ Type 1 MoS = 2.415 MoS = 2.415 MoS = 2.415 MoS = 2.416 W-S = 2.402 W-S = 2.403 W-S = 2.402 W-S = 2.403 WS₂-WSe₂ Type 2 W-S = 2.412 W-S = 2.414 W-S = 2.412 W-S = 2.413 W-Se = 2.508 W-Se = 2.508 W-Se = 2.509 W-Se = 2.510 MoS₂-WSe₂ Type 2 Mo-S = 2.428 Mo-S = 2.427 Mc-S = 2.428 Mo-S = 2.430 W-Se = 2.510 W-Se = 2.512 W-Se = 2.511 W-Se = 2.512 WS₂-MoSe₂ Type 3 W-S = 2.413 W-S = 2.413 W-S = 2.413 W-S = 2.415 Mo-Se = 2.518 Mo-Se = 2.520 Mo-Se = 2.518 Mo-Se = 2.520 MoS₂-MoSe₂ Type 3 Mo-S = 2.429 Mo-S = 2.429 Mo-S = 2.429 Mo-S = 2.431 Mo-Se = 2.520 Mo-Se = 2.522 Mo-Se = 2.521 Mo-Se = 2.522 WSe₂-MoSe₂ Type 4 Mo-Se = 2.530 Mo-Se = 2.531 Mo-Se = 2.529 Mo-Se = 2.531 W-Se = 2.521 W-Se = 2.520 W-Se = 2.521 W-Se = 2.523 WS₂ single layer W-S = 2.401 MoS₂ single layer Mo-S = 2.417 WSe₂ single layer W-Se = 2.519 MoSe single layer Mo-Se = 2.530

Distance between the transition metal (Mo,W) and the chalcogen atoms (S,Se) in Å.

Family of Hybrids WS₂—WSe₂ and MoS₂—WSe₂ (Type 2)

When mixing layers of WS₂ and WSe₂ a direct gap behavior at K is obtained for bilayer stackings A and B (see Table 1, FIG. 2D, FIG. 2F, and FIG. 3). Therefore, the direct gap is smaller than their corresponding indirect gaps at Γ-I. Although the direct gaps at K for this family are around 1 eV, the indirect gaps within Γ-I change from 0.883 eV for the crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,B) to 1.725 eV for the bilayer (WS₂,WSe₂,A) (see Table 1). The crystal formed by an infinite number of stacked layers in the A fashion, crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,A), exhibits a direct band gap at K, being this the first case of a multilayer STMD system with a direct band gap behavior (see FIG. 2F). Note that the direct band gaps for this family, around 1.0 eV (1239.84 nm), are reduced with respect to the direct band gaps for monolayers of WS₂ (1.94 eV or 639.09 nm), and WSe₂ (1.67 eV or 742.42 nm) (see Table 5), thus widening the possibilities of applications for STMD in the infrared range.

To analyze the nature of the direct band gap, we calculated the partial density of states (PDOS) considering the d-electrons of the transition metal and the p-electrons of the chalcogen atoms. The results indicate that the states at the top of the valence band, for the bilayer case (WS2-WSe2,A), are due to the W and Se of the WSe₂ layer, and those at bottom of the conduction band are owed to the W and S of the WS₂ layer. Therefore, electrons and holes are physically separated by the two different layers which constitute the TMD bilayer. A similar behavior has been found theoretically in h-BN nanotubes and homogeneous layered TMD when applying an external electric field; the so-called Giant Stark Effect (GSE). See Ramasubramaniam, A., Naveh, D. & Towe, E. Tunable band gaps in bilayer transition-metal dichalcogenides. Phys. Rev. B 84, (2011); and Khoo, K. H., Mazzoni, M. S. C. & Louie, S. G. Tuning the electronic properties of boron nitride nanotubes with transverse electric fields: A giant dc Stark effect. Phys. Rev. B 69, (2004).

In GSE the electric field separates physically electrons and holes and also helps the reduction of the band gap. However, in the heterogeneous TMD bilayers there was no external electric field applied, but it has been found, for the direct band gap bilayers, that although there is charge neutrality in the whole system, the local Mulliken charges for the transition metal atoms, as well as for the chalcogen atoms, possess different sign in different layers. For example, for the bilayer (WS2-WSe2, A), the W of the WS₂ layer exhibits a positive net charge (+0.16 e), whereas the W of the WSe₂ layer reveals a negative net charge (−0.09 e). Similarly, the S atoms of the WS₂ layer exhibit a negative net charge, and the Se show a positive net charge. This is not the case for indirect band gap bilayers sharing the same chalcogen atom, as found in bilayer (WS₂,MoS₂,B) systems, in which both Mo and W atoms display the same charge sign as well as the S and Se atoms. Therefore, an intrinsic electric field might be the cause of the electron-hole separation and the presence of the direct band gap.

Since one of the most important experimental tools for characterizing few layer TMD systems is Raman spectroscopy, Hwang, W. S. et al. Transistors with chemically synthesized layered semiconductor WS₂ exhibiting 10⁵ room temperature modulation and ambipolar behavior. Applied Physics Letters 101, (2012); Wang, H. et al. Integrated Circuits Based on Bilayer MoS₂ Transistors. Nano Letters 12, 4674-4680, (2012); Splendiani, A. et al. Emerging Photoluminescence in Monolayer MoS₂ . Nano Letters 10, 1271-1275, (2010); Eda, G. et al. Photoluminescence from Chemically Exfoliated MoS₂ . Nano Letters 11, 5111-5116, (2011); Gutierrez, H. R., Perea-Lopez, N., Elias, A. L., Berkdemyr, A., Wang, B., LV, R., Lopez-Urias, F., Crespi, V. H., Terrones, H., Terrones, M. Extraordinary Room-Temperature Photoluminescence in Triangular WS₂ Monolayers. Nano Letters DOI 10.1021/nl3026357, (2012); and Li, H. et al. From Bulk to Monolayer MoS2: Evolution of Raman Scattering. Advanced Functional Materials 22, 1385-1390, (2012), the phonon dispersion, the phonon density of states and the Raman intensities have been calculated using density functional perturbation theory for the bilayer (WS2-WSe2,B) (see FIG. 3D and FIG. 3E). When compared to the WS₂ monolayer, the phonon dispersion of the bilayer exhibits a shift which might be caused by the expansion of the WS₂ lattice when interacting with the WSe₂ layer. From the phonon dispersion and the Raman intensities, it is possible to identify the main phonon modes and their positions: E_(1g) (176.99 cm⁻¹ for WSe₂ and 293.23 for WS₂), E_(2g) ¹ (251.33 cm⁻¹ for WSe₂ and 350.50 cm⁻¹ for WS₂) and A_(1g) (251.80 cm⁻¹ for WSe₂ and 414.93 for WS₂. See FIG. 3E. Note that the E_(2g) ¹ and the A_(1g) for the WSe₂ are almost degenerate as has been found experimentally in bulk WSe₂ (250 cm⁻¹ for E_(2g) ¹ and 253 cm⁻¹ for A_(1g)). See Mead, D. G. & Irwin, J. C. Long wavelength optic phonons in WSe2. Canadian Journal of Physics 55, 379-382, (1977).

The crystal formed by alternating layers with the stacking type B, crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,B), always exhibits an indirect gap at Γ-I (see Table 1). The bilayer (WS₂,WSe₂,B) is more stable by 0.0758 eV/Cell when compared to the bilayer (WS₂,WSe₂,A). For the infinite crystal cases, crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,B) is more stable by 0.1494 eV/cell than crystal (WS₂,WSe₂,A) (see Table 2), and the lattice parameter of this family is ca. 3.20 Å (see Table 3).

TABLE 3 Hybrid- Bilayer Bilayer Crystal Crystal Structure stacking A stacking B stacking A stacking B WS₂-MoS₂ 3.155 (3.686) 3.157 (3.439) 3.156 (3.671) 3.158 (3.441) Type 1 WS₂-WSe₂ 3.204 (3.763) 3.205 (3.527) 3.204 (3.763) 3.206 (3.531) Type 2 MoS₂-WSe₂ 3.218 (3.765) 3.219 (3.522) 3.218 (3.734) 3.220 (3.502) Type 2 WS₂-MoSe₂ 3.210 (3.768) 3.211 (3.521) 3.211 (3.769) 3.213 (3.523) Type 3 MoS₂-MoSe₂ 3.225 (3.768) 3.226 (3.497) 3.226 (3.740) 3.228 (3.499) Type 3 WSe₂-MoSe₂ 3.277 (3.833) 3.278 (3.584) 3.277 (3.844) 3.280 (3.601) Type 4

Lattice parameters “a” in Δ, and distance dS-S_(e) (in parenthesis) between chalcogen atoms in Å between the two layers of STMD

The bond lengths W—S are around 2.413 Å, slightly larger than for the WS₂ monolayer. At the same time, a slight reduction in the W—Se distances is observed when compared to the monolayer from 2.519 Å to 2.510 Å (see Table 4 Bilayer systems of MoS₂—WSe₂, exhibit a direct gap with A and B stackings, as well as the infinite crystal with the A stacking (see FIG. 2E). However, the direct gap values for these cases are ca. 0.8 eV (1549.8 nm) (see Table 1). The indirect gap Γ-I varies from 0.736 eV for the crystal (MoS₂,WSe₂,B) to 1.525 eV for bilayer (MoS₂,WSe₂,A). With regard to the energetics, the crystal (MoS₂,WSe₂,B) is more stable than the crystal (MoS₂,WSe₂,A) by 0.1613 eV/Cell, and for the bilayer cases, the crystal stacking B is more stable than the A stacking by 0.0816 eV/cell (see Table 2). The lattice parameter “a” of this family ranges between 3.218 Å and 3.22 Å (see Table 3). Here, the Mo—S distance increases to 2.430 Å compared to the MoS₂ monolayer (2.417 Å), and the W—Se decreases slightly around 0.008 Å (see Table 4).

Family of Hybrids WS₂—MoSe₂ and MoS₂—MoSe₂ (Type 3)

The hybrid cases consisting of WS₂—MoSe₂ layers and MoS₂—MoSe₂ layers share similarities. First, both of them exhibit dominant direct band gaps when stacked in the A fashion (Bilayer and infinite layers. See Table 1. Both bilayer cases are indirect gap Γ-K materials when exhibiting staking type B. Note that for the previous cases, the indirect gap occurred at Γ-I (see Table 1). This hybrid system (type 3) could exhibit three electronic behaviors: Direct gap at K, indirect gap Γ-I and indirect gap Γ-K. This result enriches the possibilities of creating novel hetero-layered nanostructures exhibiting unprecedented physico-chemical properties. In addition, the direct band gap for the WS₂—MoSe₂ cases varies from 1.154 eV (1074.38 nm) for the bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,A) case to 1.180 eV (1050.71 nm) for the bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,B) which does not have a fundamental direct gap, but an indirect gap Γ-K (see Table 1). The indirect gap at Γ-K is 1.052 eV for the bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,B), and the indirect gap at Γ-I changes from 0.790 eV for the crystal (WS₂,MoSe₂,B) to 1.594 eV for the bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,A). The most stable cases correspond to the stacking type B, being more favorable by 0.1517 eV/cell the crystal (WS₂,MoSe₂,B) than the crystal (WS₂,MoSe₂,A). The bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,B) is more stable by 0.0768 eV/cell when compared to the bilayer (WS₂,MoSe₂,A) (see table 2). The lattice parameter “a” for this family is around 3.21 Å (see Table 3).

The situation for the MoS₂—MoSe₂ family is similar to the previous system described, but exhibiting a direct gap at ca. 0.945 eV (1312.00 nm). The indirect gap Γ-I changes from 0.699 eV for crystal (MoS₂,MoSe₂,B) to 1.560 eV for bilayer (MoS₂,MoSe₂,A) (See Table 1). The crystal (MoS₂,MoSe₂,B) is more stable by 0.1645 eV/cell than crystal (MoS₂,MoSe₂,A). The bilayer (MoS₂,MoSe₂,A) is less stable than bilayer (MoS₂,MoSe₂,B) by 0.0834 eV/cell (see Table 2). The lattice parameter “a” is 3.225 Å for the bilayer (MoS₂,MoSe₂,A), with little change for the crystal (MoS₂,MoSe₂,B), being 3.228 Å (see Table 3). For the type 3 family, the metal-sulfur distances increase and the metal-selenium distances decrease with respect to their corresponding monolayers (see Table 4).

Family of Hybrids WSe₂—MoSe₂ (Type 4)

For the cases studied using overlapped layers of WSe₂ and MoSe₂, there is no direct band gap smaller than the indirect gaps at Γ-I and K-I, condition that needs to be satisfied in order to have a fundamental direct band gap material. For bilayer (WSe₂,MoSe₂,A), the direct gap at the K point is smaller (1.443 eV) than the indirect gap Γ-I (1.538 eV), but not smaller than the indirect gap at K-I (1.330 eV). Thus, the material possesses an indirect gap at K-I (see Table 1). The PDOS of bilayer (WSe₂,MoSe₂,A) shows that the states at the top of the valence band are slightly dominated by the WSe₂ layer (W d-electrons, and Se p-electrons); however, the bottom of the conduction band exhibits states from both layers, with more states arising from the MoSe₂ layer.

The crystal (WSe₂,MoSe₂,A) also exhibits a K-I band gap of 1.215 eV (see Table 1). The other two cases: bilayer (WSe2,MoSe2,B) and crystal (WSe2,MoSe2,B), reveal indirect band gaps Γ-I (see Table 1). The relative stability of the crystalline cases indicates that the crystal (WSe₂,MoSe₂,B) is more stable than crystal (WSe₂,MoSe₂,A) by 0.1632 eV/Cell. For bilayers, the bilayer (Wse₂,MoSe₂,B) is more stable by 0.0826 eV/cell than bilayer (WSe₂,MoSe₂,A) (see Table 2). The lattice parameter “a” of this family is the largest of all studied STMD with 3.28 Å for the crystal (WSe₂,MoSe₂,B). This cell parameter is very close to that reported experimentally for WSe₂ and MoSe₂ crystals, Bonneau, P. R., Jarvis, R. F. & Kaner, R. B. Rapid solid-state synthesis of materials from molybdenum-disulfide to refractories. Nature 349, 510-512, (1991), James, P. B. & Lavik, M. T. Crystal structure of MoSe2. Acta Crystallographica 16, 1183-&, (1963), (see tables 3 and 5). The bond distance of W—Se exhibits a slight increase (2.521 Å) when compared to the corresponding distance of the monolayer (2.519 Å). The distance Mo—Se is basically preserved when compared to the monolayer (see Table 4).

Part of our appreciation of the novel properties afforded by our novel materials afforded herein arises from our development of a novel method for preparation of these materials. We provide a controlled thermal reduction-sulfurization method to synthesize large area (˜1 cm²) WS₂ sheets with thicknesses ranging from monolayers to few layers. During synthesis, WO_(x) thin films are first deposited on Si/SiO₂ substrates, which are then sulfurized (under vacuum) at high temperatures (750-950° C.). An efficient route to transfer the synthesized WS₂ films onto different substrates such as quartz and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grids has been satisfactorily developed using concentrated HF. Samples with different thicknesses have been analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, TEM, atomic force microscopy (AFM), and their photoluminescence properties have been evaluated.

We demonstrate the presence of single-, bi- and few-layered WS₂ on as-grown samples. The electronic structure of these materials is very sensitive to the number of layers, ranging from indirect band-gap semiconductor in bulk phase to direct band-gap semiconductor for monolayers. This method has also proved successful in the synthesis of heterogeneous systems of MoS₂ and WS₂, thus shedding light in the control production of hetero-layered devices out of transition metal chalcogenides.

We are able to accomplish a controlled synthesis of large area (˜cm²) single-, bi- and few-layer WS₂ using a two step process. This is shown, for example, in FIGS. 5A and 5B. In one embodiment of this process, WO_(x) thin films are deposited on a Si/SiO₂ substrate. These films are then sulfurized under vacuum in a second step occurring at high temperatures (750-950° C.). These WS₂ films may then be transferred onto different substrates, such as quartz and TEM grids, using concentrated HF. This is shown, for example in FIGS. 6A-6B.

We produced WS₂ films using a thermal reduction-sulfurization method achieving large area sheets and controllable thicknesses ranging from one to several layers. The WS₂ sheets were characterized by optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, AFM, HRTEM and optical spectroscopy. From HRTEM characterization and further analysis by fast Fourier transform (FFT), we determined the different WS₂ thicknesses.

It is important to mention that in some cases, during the transfer process, WS₂ films were folded or wrinkled exhibiting some regions with different WS₂ thicknesses and stacking. Bilayer and trilayer WS₂ with different layer stackings were witnessed by the formation of Moiré patterns and were confirmed by FFT. WS₂ samples were targeted with a 488 nm excitation wavelength in order to analyze photoluminescence spectra, observing that only single layer WS₂ revealed a PL signal located around 2.0 eV. Investigations related to applications of monolayer WS₂-based photosensor devices and gas sensing are currently underway. This thermal sulfurization method of synthesizing large area WS₂ could now be implemented for the synthesis of other dichalcogenides materials such as MoS₂, MoSe₂, WSe₂, NbS₂, NbSe₂, etc. For instance, the method has been used to successfully produce few layered hybrid W_(x)Mo_(y)S₂ materials, as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy.

Si wafers with a thermally deposited SiO₂ layer of 285 nm were cleaned with acetone-isopropanol mixtures in an ultrasonic bath for 15 min. After drying with compress UHP N₂ gas, the wafers were loaded in the chamber of a physical vapor deposition equipment, PVD75 Kurt J. Lesker. WO₃ was thermally evaporated and deposited on the wafers; various thicknesses ranging from 2 nm to 18 nm were deposited at low pressures (10⁻⁵-10⁻⁶ Torr). For the hybrid W_(x)Mo_(y)S₂, MoO₃ was thermally evaporated on a WO_(x) coated substrate. Si wafers were subsequently loaded into a quartz reaction tube for thermal treatment under a sulfur environment, as shown in FIGS. 1A-1D. 500 mg of S powder (95%, Alfa Aesar, CAS 7704-34-9) were placed in a boat outside the furnace; this zone was wrapped with a heating belt, which was heated at a temperature of 250° C. The pressure in the chamber was reduced to 35 mT for 10 min and 50 sccm of UHP Ar were flown afterwards, reaching a pressure of 450 mT. The split furnace was then heated at temperatures ranging from 750 to 900° C. Typical temperature ramps for both furnace and heating belt are shown in FIG. 5B.

A chemical method developed for the transfer of “as grown” WS₂ films is shown in FIG. 6A. WS₂ films were covered with a thin layer of poly(methyl methacrylate) by spin coating at 4000 rpm for 60 sec (MW 495,000, A3). After a 2 h polymer curing step, samples were immersed in hydrofluoric acid (ACS, 48-51%, Alfa Aesar, CAS 7664-39-3) for a few seconds to lift off the PMMA-WS₂ material. The films were then fished out with Mo foil and immersed in deionized water. Finally, the films were fished out with the desired substrate (quartz, TEM grids, etc) and allowed to dry under ambient conditions. To remove the PMMA coating, the samples were washed with acetone and isopropanol.

Although the method described herein is set forth in the context of production of WS2 films, those of skill in the art will recognize, with the benefit of this disclosure, that the method may be used to prepare significant numbers layered materials. This may be accomplished, for example, by depositing seed crystals on a cleaned silicon dioxide wafer. The wafer, including the crystals, is passed at high temperature through sulfur vapor in a chemical vapor deposition process. This might be useful for other sulfur calcochenides. In still further embodiments the vapor deposition is conducted using selenium.

To confirm that WS₂ had been prepared, we conducted Raman spectroscopy of both as grown and transferred WS₂ films in a Renishaw inVia confocal microscope-based Raman spectrometer using the 488 and 514.5 nm laser excitations. The 520 cm⁻¹ phonon mode from the Si substrate was used for calibration. WS₂ spectra were obtained for all samples, matching previous Raman studies.

For thicker WS₂ films, the E¹ _(2g) and A_(1g) modes were easily identified. A single layered WS₂ spectrum was obtained for samples synthesized with the thinnest WO_(x) film prepared (2 nm), as shown in FIG. 3. When using a 514 nm laser, the A_(1g) (c.a. 418.5 cm⁻¹) mode was identified, although the E¹ _(2g) (c.a. 356 cm⁻¹) mode was screened by the presence of the 2LA(M) mode, located at 352-353 cm⁻¹. According to theoretical calculations, a double resonance Raman process occurs for single layered WS₂ that causes the 2LA(M) to emerge with intensities much larger (double) than those of the well-known A_(1g) mode, as shown in FIG. 8A When using a 488 nm laser excitation wavelength, we identified the A_(1g) mode at ca. 419 cm⁻¹ (see FIG. 8B). The double resonance process does not occur when using 488 nm, therefore, the 2LA(M) mode does not appear in FIG. 8B. The E¹ _(2g) mode was identified at around 357 cm⁻¹ for a 488 nm excitation wavelength. Raman spectra were acquired from samples in their original substrate and also after transfer onto Si/SiO₂ substrates, showing no variations.

HRTEM characterization was performed on WS₂ samples transferred onto Quantifoil© gold TEM grids with 2μ, gold TEM. In particular, we used a JEOL JEM-2100F equipped with double Cs-correctors, operated at 120 kV and 80 kV. Gatan Digital Micrograph was used to acquire images, perform FFT, IFFT and other processes shown in this work. FIG. 9A exhibits the WS₂ hexagonal lattice. During the transfer process, WS₂ films could be folded or wrinkled. Due to this fact, we found some regions with different WS₂ thickness and stacking. FIG. 9B and FIG. 9C exhibit a bilayer and trilayer WS₂ with different stacking order, indicated by the formed Moire patterns and confirmed by the fast Fourier transform (see insets). FIG. 9D depicts the edge of a single layered WS₂ film.

WS₂ samples were shined with a 488 nm excitation wavelength in order to observe photoluminescence (PL; FIG. 5A). Recently, PL has been experimentally found in single layered WS₂ and MoS₂, and our monolayer WS₂ films exhibit strong PL signals. The bulk phase of WS₂ possess an indirect electronic band gap of around 1.4 eV and a direct band gap of 2.01 eV, whereas, single layered WS₂ exhibits a direct band gap at ca. 1.9 eV, in close agreement with DFT-LDA calculations (see FIG. 10B).

FIG. 10C and FIG. 10D display the calculated electronic band structure for both monolayer and bulk WS₂. Therefore, a PL signal located at around 1.9 eV indicates the presence of single layered WS₂. Experimental PL spectra are shown in FIG. 10A, where single layered WS₂ shows a PL signal centered at around 2.02 eV (613 nm). PL maps of 60×60 vim regions were carried out, to show the uniformity of the single layered samples. A very weak PL signal was found for double layered WS₂ samples at around 1.93 eV (642 nm), with a shoulder located at 2.17 eV (571 nm). For tri layered samples, an extremely weak PL signal was found at 1.92 ev (647 nm) and a weaker signal was found at 2.18 eV (570 nm). Interestingly, for WS₂ single layered triangular islands, the PL signal was found at slightly lower energies, such as 1.95 eV

To investigate the origin of this shift, we performed theoretical calculations using the plane wave code CASTEP functional with 10×10×3 Monkhorst-Pack K-points and a plane waves cut off of 500 eV, with a norm-conserving pseudopotential. The structures were relaxed until the forces became smaller to 0.01 eV/Å and the energy tolerances were less to 5×10⁻⁶ eV/atom. A vacuum of 16 Å between the layers was considered.

FIG. 10B depicts our theoretical results, in which a relaxed WS₂ sheet would have a decreasing gap when the lattice is expanded. Particularly, a 0.3% strain or expansion would result in a variation of 50 meV in the electronic band gap. Our results are in agreement with those reported by other groups within the LDA formalism [Ding Y, et al Physica B-Condensed Matter 2011; Mahatha, et al. Journal of Physics-Condensed Matter 2012]. In particular, the decreasing gap behavior due to the expansion of the lattice, agrees with calculated data for MoS₂ [Yue et al. Phys Lett A 2012]. The strain has been introduced by compressing or expanding the cell parameters at steps of 0.2% of the non-strained parameters (a=b=3.146 Å). Therefore, we might conclude that there is strain present in the triangular islands of WS₂.

The described synthesis method is very versatile. Good quality few layered WS₂ and MoS₂ have also been obtained following this method, but at atmospheric pressure. For these experiments, an Ar flow of 100 sccm was used, while the rest of the set up remains as described in FIG. 5. Interestingly, hybrid systems (MoS₂—WS₂) can also be achieved by adding an extra layer of MoO_(x) on the Si/SiO₂/WO_(x) substrates. For a 2 nm WO_(x) and 2 nm MoO_(x), a few layer hybrid material, so called W_(x)Mo_(y)S₂, has been identified by Raman spectroscopy (see FIG. 7).

The spectrum exhibits the strongest bands corresponding to both MoS₂ and WS₂ (E12g and A1g). In FIG. 7, those bands are highlighted in red for WS₂ (352.2 and 418 cm⁻¹) and in blue for MoS₂ (381 and 408.3 cm⁻¹). Hybrid M_(1-x)W_(x)S₂ single layers have been recently reported [Nat Comm 2013]. Crystals with such chemical composition were synthesized by chemical vapor transport at a 1000° C. and were subsequently mechanically exfoliated [Nat Comm 2013]. W and Mo were visualized by scanning transmission electron microscopy. For the case of our synthesized W_(x)Mo_(y)S₂, Raman spectroscopy suggests that both WS2 and MoS2 coexist in the same material. Two possibilities are envisaged: First, having an heterogeneous bilayer (multilayer) system of MoS₂ and WS₂, or possessing a multilayer system with a mixture of domains of MoS₂ and WS₂ blended in each layer. In both cases, our method sheds light on the production of heterogeneous transition metal chalcogenide structures.

While we have shown and described certain present preferred embodiments of our heterostructures made of bilayer and multilayer TMDs, and have illustrated certain present preferred methods of making and using the same, it is to be distinctly understood that the invention is not limited thereto but may be otherwise variously embodied and practiced by those skilled in the art with the benefit of the disclosure made herein.

Patents, patent applications, publications, scientific articles, books, web sites, and other documents and materials referenced or mentioned herein are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the inventions pertain, as of the date each publication was written, and all are incorporated by reference as if fully rewritten herein. Inclusion of a document in this specification is not an admission that the document represents prior invention or is prior art for any purpose. 

1-9. (canceled)
 10. A method of making a TMD system comprising: sulfurizing or selenizing a the transition metal oxide; overlapping at least two monolayers of said sulfurized or selenized transition metal oxide.
 11. The method of claim 10, comprising applying the at least two monolayers by chemical vapor deposition.
 12. A process for production of a monolayer material comprising a transition metal and a calcogenide selected from the group consisting of sulfur, tellurium, and selenium, comprising: depositing a transition metal oxide on a support; subjecting said transition metal oxide to chemical vapor deposition at elevated temperature and in the presence of gaseous selenium, gaseous tellurium, or gaseous sulfur, thereby producing a monolayer material.
 13. The process of claim 12, wherein said elevated temperatures are between 750-900 degrees C.
 14. The process of claim 13, wherein the elevated temperature is 800 degrees C.
 15. The process of claim 12, wherein the transition metal oxide is an oxide of an element selected from the group consisting of tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, vanadium, and tantalum.
 16. The process of claim 15, further comprising: depositing an additional transition metal oxide on the monolayer material; and depositing, by chemical vapor deposition, an additional chalcogenide on the additional transition metal oxide. 